Endoprostheses

ABSTRACT

An endoprosthesis includes a body defining a flow passage therethrough. The body is capable of maintaining patency in a blood vessel and includes iron or an alloy thereof. The body has a nano-structured surface comprising iron oxide in which the individual nano-structures have a height to thickness aspect ratio of at least 5:1.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This invention relates to endoprostheses, and more particularly to bioerodible endoprostheses.

BACKGROUND

The body includes various passageways such as arteries, other blood vessels, and other body lumens. These passageways sometimes become occluded or weakened. For example, the passageways can be occluded by a tumor, restricted by plaque, or weakened by an aneurysm. When this occurs, the passageway can be reopened or reinforced with a medical endoprosthesis. An endoprosthesis is typically a tubular member that is placed in a lumen in the body. Examples of endoprostheses include stents, covered stents, and stent-grafts.

Endoprostheses can be delivered inside the body by a catheter that supports the endoprosthesis in a compacted or reduced-size form as the endoprosthesis is transported to a desired site. Upon reaching the site, the endoprosthesis is expanded, e.g., so that it can contact the walls of the lumen. Stent delivery is further discussed in Heath, U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,721, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.

The expansion mechanism may include forcing the endoprosthesis to expand radially. For example, the expansion mechanism can include the catheter carrying a balloon, which carries a balloon-expandable endoprosthesis. The balloon can be inflated to deform and to fix the expanded endoprosthesis at a predetermined position in contact with the lumen wall. The balloon can then be deflated, and the catheter withdrawn from the lumen.

In another delivery technique, the endoprosthesis is formed of an elastic material that can be reversibly compacted and expanded, e.g., elastically or through a material phase transition. During introduction into the body, the endoprosthesis is restrained in a compacted condition. Upon reaching the desired implantation site, the restraint is removed, for example, by retracting a restraining device such as an outer sheath, enabling the endoprosthesis to self-expand by its own internal elastic restoring force.

Passageways containing endoprostheses can become re-occluded. Re-occlusion of such passageways is known as restenosis. It has been observed that certain drugs can inhibit the onset of restenosis when the drug is contained in the endoprosthesis. It is sometimes desirable for an endoprosthesis-contained therapeutic agent, or drug to elute into the body fluid in a predetermined manner once the endoprosthesis is implanted.

SUMMARY

There is described an endoprosthesis that includes a body defining a flow passage therethrough and is capable of maintaining patency in a blood vessel. The body includes iron or an alloy thereof. The body has a nano-structured surface comprising iron oxide in which the individual nano-structures have a height to thickness aspect ratio of at least 5:1.

In some embodiments, the height to thickness aspect ratio is between 10:1 and 20:1. For example, the height of each individual nano-structure can be between about 50 nm and about 500 nm. In some embodiments, the individual nano-structures can have a flake structure each having a width of at least twice the thickness. For example, the thickness of each individual flake nano-structure can be between about 5 nm to 50 nm and the width of each individual flake nano-structure can be between about 100 nm to 500 nm. In other embodiments, the individual nano-structures can have a rice grain structure. For example, an individual rice grain nano-structure can have a diameter of between about 5 nm to 50 nm. In some embodiments, an average separation distance between adjacent individual nano-structures can be between about 1 nm and 50 nm.

The nano-structured surface of the body can also be described by its roughness characteristics and/or resistance to corrosion. For example, the surface of the body can have a S_(dr) of between 120 and 200. A nano-structured surface can have a resistance to corrosion of less than 5 Kohms (e.g., about 2 Kohms).

In some embodiments, the endoprosthesis can further include a polymer coating over at least a portion of the nano-structured surface. For example, the polymer coating can include a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid and one or more of the following polymers: poly(ethylene oxide), polycaprolactam, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), and polysaccharides. For example, the polymer can include a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid and a non-ionic polysaccharide (e.g., pullulan). In some embodiments, the polymer coating can be a drug eluting coating that includes a therapeutic agent.

The endoprosthesis can, in some embodiments, be bioerodible. For example, the body can include a bioerodible metal, such as pure iron. A coating, if present, can also be a bioerodible polymer.

The endoprosthesis can, in some embodiments, be a stent.

In another aspect, an endoprosthesis is described that includes a body defining a flow passage therethrough that is capable of maintaining patency in a blood vessel. The body includes iron or an alloy thereof and has a surface comprising iron oxide. The endoprosthesis also includes a coating over the surface that includes a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid.

In some embodiments, the co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid can be a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid and of a polysaccharide. The polysaccharide can be a non-ionic polysaccharide such as pullulan.

The endoprosthesis can, in some embodiments, be bioerodible. For example, the body can include a bioerodible metal, such as pure iron, and the coating can also be a bioerodible polymer.

The endoprosthesis can, in some embodiments, be a stent.

In another aspect, a method of producing an endoprosthesis is described. The method includes exposing a portion of an endoprosthesis, or a precursor thereof, to an electrolytic solution and applying a plurality of current pulses to the endoprosthesis. The endoprosthesis includes iron or an alloy thereof. The application of the current pulses to the endoprosthesis while exposed to the electrolytic solution creates a nano-structured surface on the endoprosthesis having a plurality of individual nano-structures having a height to thickness aspect ratio of at least 5:1.

In some embodiments, the applied current pulses can include cathodic pulses, anodic pulses, or a combination thereof. The applied current pulses can include galvanic square waves, potential square waves, or a combination thereof.

The method, in some embodiments, can further include applying a coating including a polymer to the nano-structured surface.

In some embodiments, the endoprosthesis can be a bioerodible stent.

The details of one or more embodiments are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-1C are longitudinal cross-sectional views illustrating delivery of a stent in a collapsed state, expansion of the stent, and deployment of the stent.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an embodiment of an expanded stent.

FIGS. 3A-3F depict examples of a surface having nano-structures having height to thickness aspect ratios of at least 5:1.

FIG. 4A depicts a stent having corrosion enhancing regions on connectors between bands.

FIG. 4B depicts a stent after the erosion of the connectors between bands.

FIGS. 5A-5D depict how a stent strut erodes with and without spaced corrosion enhancing regions.

Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Referring to FIGS. 1A-1C, a stent 20 is placed over a balloon 12 carried near a distal end of a catheter 14, and is directed through the lumen 16 (FIG. 1A) until the portion carrying the balloon and stent reaches the region of an occlusion 18. The stent 20 is then radially expanded by inflating the balloon 12 and compressed against the vessel wall with the result that occlusion 18 is compressed, and the vessel wall surrounding it undergoes a radial expansion (FIG. 1B). The pressure is then released from the balloon and the catheter is withdrawn from the vessel (FIG. 1C).

Referring to FIG. 2, a balloon-expandable stent 20 can have a stent body having the form of a tubular member defined by a plurality of bands 22 and a plurality of connectors 24 that extend between and connect adjacent bands. During use, bands 22 can be expanded from an initial, smaller diameter to a larger diameter to contact stent 20 against a wall of a vessel, thereby maintaining the patency of the vessel. Connectors 24 can provide stent 20 with flexibility and conformability that allow the stent to adapt to the contours of the vessel. The stent 20 defines a flow passage therethrough and is capable of maintaining patency in a blood vessel.

The stent 20 can include a body including iron or an alloy thereof. In some embodiments, the stent 20 can include a body including one or more bioerodible metals, such as magnesium, zinc, iron, or alloys thereof. The body can have a surface including iron oxide.

The stent body can have a surface having a morphology characterized by high-surface-area porous nano-structures. The nano-structured surface can provide a high surface area characterized by crevices between and around spaced individual nano-structures. For example, the individual nano-structures can be in the form of grains or flakes. The nano-structured surface can trigger and accelerate the rate of erosion or degradation of the bioerodible metal of the body of the stent. Additionally, select areas of a stent body can be treated to have the nano-structured surface to allow for select areas of stent degradation. Additionally, the nano-structured surface can allow for coatings to be deposited and interlock into the surface, enhancing adhesion. In some embodiments, the surface can also encourage endothelial growth to enhance endothelialization of the stent 20. The nano-structured surface may also allow for greater freedom of motion and a stent body that is less likely to fracture as the stent is flexed in use prior from the controlled bioerosion of the stent body. The stresses can be caused by flexure of the stent, during expansion or contraction of the stent or as the stent is delivered through a tortuously curved body lumen increase as a function of the distance from the stent axis. As a result, in some embodiments, the nano-structured surface can be on abluminal regions of the surface of the stent body or at other high stress points, such as the regions of the bands 22 adjacent to the connectors 24 which undergo greater flexure during expansion or contraction.

The nano-structured surface can be characterized by its visual appearance, the size and arrangement of individual nano-structures, its roughness and/or its resistance to corrosion. Examples of surfaces having the morphological features are shown in FIGS. 3A-3F. In some embodiments, the morphology of the surface can include “corn flake” and/or “rice grain” microstructures.

FIGS. 3A-3C depict a nano-structured surface characterized by definable thin planar flakes resembling corn flakes. The “corn flake” surface structures can have a height, H, of about 50 to 500 nm, e.g., about 100-300 nm, a width, W, of about 100 to 500 nm, e.g., about 200-400 nm, and a thickness, T, of about 5 to 50 nm, e.g., about 10-15 nm. The “corn flake” structures can have an aspect ratio of the height to the thickness of about 5:1 or more, e.g., 10:1 to 20:1. The “corn flake” structures can overlap in one or more layers. The separation between adjacent “corn flake” structures can be about 1-50 nm.

FIGS. 3D-3F depict a nano-structured surface characterized by definable sub-micron sized grains resembling rice grains. The “rice grains” surface structures can have a height, H, of about 50 to 500 nm, e.g. about 100-300 nm, and an average diameter, D, of about 5 nm to 50 nm, e.g. about 10-15 nm. The “rice grain” structures have an aspect ratio of the height to the diameter of about 5:1 or more, e.g. 10:1 to 20:1. The “rice grain” structures can overlap in one or more layers. The separation between adjacent “rice grain” structures can be about 1-50 nm.

The roughness of the nano-structured surface can also be characterized by the average roughness, S_(a), the root mean square roughness, S_(q), and/or the developed interfacial area ratio, S_(dr). The S_(a) and S_(q) parameters represent an overall measure of the texture of the surface. S_(a) and S_(q) are relatively insensitive in differentiating peaks, valleys and the spacing of the various texture features. Surfaces with different visual morphologies can have similar S_(a) and S_(q) values. For a surface type, the S_(a) and S_(q) parameters indicate significant deviations in the texture characteristics. S_(dr) is expressed as the percentage of additional surface area contributed by the texture as compared to an ideal plane the size of the measurement region. S_(dr) further differentiates surfaces of similar amplitudes and average roughness. Typically S_(dr) will increase with the spatial intricacy of the texture whether or not S_(a) changes. In some embodiments, where the surface of the body has a nano-structured surface, the S_(dr) can be about 100 or more, e.g. about 120 to 200. For example, the surface can have an S_(dr) of about 150. In addition or in the alternative, the morphology can have an S_(q) of about 20 or more, e.g. about 20 to 30.

The corrosion resistance of the high-surface-area porous nano-structures of iron, having iron oxide at the surface, can be less than 5 Kohms, e.g., about 2 Kohms. This represents a significantly reduced resistance to corrosion when compared to iron having a smooth surface finish, which has a corrosion resistance of about 20 Kohms. The resistance to corrosion can be calculated by Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (“EIS”) data. An example of how EIS data can be used to calculate the resistance to corrosion is described in Analysis and Interpretation of EIS Data for Metals and Alloys, Technical Report No. 26, Florian Mansfeld (Solartron Limited, 1999).

In some embodiments, the morphology of the surface can exhibit high uniformity. In other embodiments, select portions of the stent can be differentially treated to result in a stent having regions of preferential erosion. Uniformity can provide predictable mechanical performance and a constant rate of erosion. In some embodiments, a uniform morphology of the surface of the body can allow for the uniform adhesion of a coating applied to the surface. The uniformity of the morphology as characterized by S_(a), S_(q) or S_(dr) and/or average peak spacing parameters can be within about +/−20% or less, e.g. +/−10% or less within a 1 μm square. In a given stent region, the uniformity can be within about +/−10%, e.g. about +/−1%. For example, in some embodiments, the ceramic exhibits high uniformity over an entire surface region of stent, such as the entire abluminal or adluminal surface, or a portion of a surface region, such as the center 25% or 50% of the surface region. The uniformity is expressed as standard deviation. Uniformity in a region of a stent can be determined by determining the average in five randomly chosen 1 μm square regions and calculating the standard deviation. Uniformity of visual morphology type in a region is determined by inspection of FESEM data at 50 KX.

The above described high-surface-area porous nano-structures can be produced on an iron stent body by electrochemical treatments. These electrochemical treatments can result in the presence of iron oxide on the surface of the resulting nano-structures. These electrochemical treatments can include anodic dissolution while cycling between positive and negative potential pulses. The cycling of potential pulses can be by galvanic square waves (“GSW”) or by potential square waves (“PSW”). For example, an iron stent body precursor can be modified to have the above described high-surface area porous nano-structures by exposing the precursor iron stent body, cleaned of surface impurities, to a 1 mol dm⁻³ NaOH solution and applying potential pulses cycling voltammetry at a sweep rate of 50 mV s⁻¹ between −1.2 V and 0.5 V, or by square-wave (SQW) potential pulses between −1.2 V and 0.5 V at 0.017 Hz, for 1 hour at a temperature of 200° C. In some embodiments, particular portions of an iron stent body can be modified to have the above described nano-structure by selectively exposing different portions of the iron stent body precursor to an electrolyte, such as sodium hydroxide. For example, droplets of NaOH can be applied to select regions of the stent body precursor to create corrosion enhancing regions 26 of selected struts of the stent 20.

The stent body, in some embodiments, can have a surface with select regions having the high-surface-area surface morphologies so that the stent can degrade in a controlled manner. For example, as shown in FIG. 4A, the connectors 24 of the stent 20 can include corrosion enhancing regions 26. Such an arrangement can allow for the connectors 24 to degrade first, which can increase the flexibility of the stent along the longitudinal axis while radial opposition to the vessel wall is maintained. FIG. 4B depicts the stent after the erosion of the connectors 24, leaving the unconnected bands 22 that can still provide radial vessel opposition.

FIGS. 5A-5D show the difference between the uncontrolled erosion of a stent strut (e.g., portions of a band or a connector) and the erosion of a stent strut having corrosion enhancing regions 26. As shown by FIGS. 5A and 5B, uncontrolled degradation can cause struts to narrow and break in localized areas producing a sharp strut that retains its columnar strength, which can produce a piercing risk. A stent strut having spaced corrosion enhancing regions 26, however, can reduce the piercing risk. As shown in FIGS. 5C and 5D, corrosion enhancing regions 26 can erode to produce a strut having low columnar strength. Because the corrosion enhancing regions 26 can erode to produce an easily bent strut, the erosion of the stent strut produces a lower piercing risk. As discussed above, these corrosion enhancing regions 26 can be produced on an iron stent body precursor by applying droplets of an electrolyte (e.g., NaOH) to selected portions of the stent struts and then applying potential pulses cycling voltammetry between positive and negative pulses.

The stent body can, in some embodiments, include one or more coatings. In some embodiments, a block copolymer based on poly glutamic acid (PGA) can overlie the surface of the stent body. The block copolymer can, for example, be a di- or tri-block copolymer. Other blocks can be blocks of other biodegradable polymers such as poly(ethylene oxide) (“PEO”), polycaprolactam, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (“PLGA”), or polysaccharides. In some embodiments, a block copolymer of PGA and a non-ionic polysaccharide, such as Pullulan, can overly the surface of the stent.

A block copolymer based on PGA can provide a robust interface adhesion with iron oxide present at the surface of the stent. In some embodiments a polyglutamic acid-pullulan coating can be applied to a iron stent having a surface including iron oxide to produce a stent having a strong bond between the stent body and the applied coating. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the surface of the stent body can have the above described high-surface-area porous nano-structure morphology, which can also increase the adhesion of the block copolymer to the surface of the stent body.

The coating of the block copolymer based on PGA can be a drug eluding coating designed to deliver a therapeutic agent to the surrounding tissue as the coating and the stent body erodes. The terms “therapeutic agent”, “pharmaceutically active agent”, “pharmaceutically active material”, “pharmaceutically active ingredient”, “drug” and other related terms may be used interchangeably herein and include, but are not limited to, small organic molecules, peptides, oligopeptides, proteins, nucleic acids, oligonucleotides, genetic therapeutic agents, non-genetic therapeutic agents, vectors for delivery of genetic therapeutic agents, cells, and therapeutic agents identified as candidates for vascular treatment regimens, for example, as agents that reduce or inhibit restenosis. By small organic molecule it is meant an organic molecule having 50 or fewer carbon atoms, and fewer than 100 non-hydrogen atoms in total.

Exemplary non-genetic therapeutic agents for use in conjunction with the presently disclosed endoprostheses an include: (a) anti-thrombotic agents such as heparin, heparin derivatives, urokinase, and PPack (dextrophenylalanine proline arginine chloromethylketone); (b) anti-inflammatory agents such as dexamethasone, prednisolone, corticosterone, budesonide, estrogen, sulfasalazine and mesalamine; (c) antineoplastic/antiproliferative/anti-miotic agents such as paclitaxel, 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin, vinblastine, vincristine, epothilones, endostatin, angiostatin, angiopeptin, monoclonal antibodies capable of blocking smooth muscle cell proliferation, and thymidine kinase inhibitors; (d) anesthetic agents such as lidocaine, bupivacaine and ropivacaine; (e) anti-coagulants such as D-Phe-Pro-Arg chloromethyl ketone, an RGD peptide-containing compound, heparin, hirudin, antithrombin compounds, platelet receptor antagonists, anti-thrombin antibodies, anti-platelet receptor antibodies, aspirin, prostaglandin inhibitors, platelet inhibitors and tick antiplatelet peptides; (f) vascular cell growth promoters such as growth factors, transcriptional activators, and translational promotors; (g) vascular cell growth inhibitors such as growth factor inhibitors, growth factor receptor antagonists, transcriptional repressors, translational repressors, replication inhibitors, inhibitory antibodies, antibodies directed against growth factors, bifunctional molecules consisting of a growth factor and a cytotoxin, bifunctional molecules consisting of an antibody and a cytotoxin; (h) protein kinase and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (e.g., tyrphostins, genistein, quinoxalines); (i) prostacyclin analogs; (j) cholesterol-lowering agents; (k) angiopoietins; (l) antimicrobial agents such as triclosan, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides and nitrofurantoin; (m) cytotoxic agents, cytostatic agents and cell proliferation affectors; (n) vasodilating agents; (o) agents that interfere with endogenous vasoactive mechanisms; (p) inhibitors of leukocyte recruitment, such as monoclonal antibodies; (q) cytokines; (r) hormones; (s) inhibitors of HSP 90 protein (i.e., Heat Shock Protein, which is a molecular chaperone or housekeeping protein and is needed for the stability and function of other client proteins/signal transduction proteins responsible for growth and survival of cells) including geldanamycin; (t) alpha receptor antagonist (such as doxazosin, Tamsulosin) and beta receptor agonists (such as dobutamine, salmeterol), beta receptor antagonist (such as atenolol, metaprolol, butoxamine), angiotensin-II receptor antagonists (such as losartan, valsartan, irbesartan, candesartan and telmisartan), and antispasmodic drugs (such as oxybutynin chloride, flavoxate, tolterodine, hyoscyamine sulfate, diclomine); (u) bARKct inhibitors; (v) phospholamban inhibitors; (w) Serca 2 gene/protein; (x) immune response modifiers including aminoquizolines, for instance, imidazoquinolines such as resiquimod and imiquimod, and (y) human apolioproteins (e.g., AI, AII, AIII, AIV, AV, etc.).

Specific examples of non-genetic therapeutic agents include paclitaxel, (including particulate forms thereof, for instance, protein-bound paclitaxel particles such as albumin-bound paclitaxel nanoparticles, e.g., ABRAXANE), sirolimus, everolimus, tacrolimus, Epo D, dexamethasone, estradiol, halofuginone, cilostazole, geldanamycin, ABT-578 (Abbott Laboratories), trapidil, liprostin, Actinomcin D, Resten-NG, Ap-17, abciximab, clopidogrel, Ridogrel, beta-blockers, bARKct inhibitors, phospholamban inhibitors, Serca 2 gene/protein, imiquimod, human apolioproteins (e.g., AI-AV), growth factors (e.g., VEGF-2), as well as derivatives of the forgoing, among others.

Exemplary genetic therapeutic agents for use in conjunction with the presently disclosed endoprostheses include anti-sense DNA and RNA as well as DNA coding for the various proteins (as well as the proteins themselves): (a) anti-sense RNA, (b) tRNA or rRNA to replace defective or deficient endogenous molecules, (c) angiogenic and other factors including growth factors such as acidic and basic fibroblast growth factors, vascular endothelial growth factor, endothelial mitogenic growth factors, epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor α and β, platelet-derived endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, tumor necrosis factor α, hepatocyte growth factor and insulin-like growth factor; (d) cell cycle inhibitors including CD inhibitors, and (e) thymidine kinase (“TK”) and other agents useful for interfering with cell proliferation. Also of interest is DNA encoding for the family of bone morphogenic proteins (“BMP's”), including BMP-2, BMP-3, BMP-4, BMP-5, BMP-6 (Vgr-1), BMP-7 (OP-1), BMP-8, BMP-9, BMP-10, BMP-11, BMP-12, BMP-13, BMP-14, BMP-15, and BMP-16. Currently preferred BMP's are any of BMP-2, BMP-3, BMP-4, BMP-5, BMP-6 and BMP-7. These dimeric proteins can be provided as homodimers, heterodimers, or combinations thereof, alone or together with other molecules. Alternatively, or in addition, molecules capable of inducing an upstream or downstream effect of a BMP can be provided. Such molecules include any of the “hedgehog” proteins, or the DNA's encoding them.

Vectors for delivery of genetic therapeutic agents include viral vectors such as adenoviruses, gutted adenoviruses, adeno-associated virus, retroviruses, alpha virus (Semliki Forest, Sindbis, etc.), lentiviruses, herpes simplex virus, replication competent viruses (e.g., ONYX-015) and hybrid vectors; and non-viral vectors such as artificial chromosomes and mini-chromosomes, plasmid DNA vectors (e.g., pCOR), cationic polymers (e.g., polyethyleneimine, polyethyleneimine (PEI)), graft copolymers (e.g., polyether-PEI and polyethylene oxide-PEI), neutral polymers PVP, SP1017 (SUPRATEK), lipids such as cationic lipids, liposomes, lipoplexes, nanoparticles, or microparticles, with and without targeting sequences such as the protein transduction domain (PTD).

Cells for use in conjunction with the presently disclosed endoprostheses include cells of human origin (autologous or allogeneic), including whole bone marrow, bone marrow derived mono-nuclear cells, progenitor cells (e.g., endothelial progenitor cells), stem cells (e.g., mesenchymal, hematopoietic, neuronal), pluripotent stem cells, fibroblasts, myoblasts, satellite cells, pericytes, cardiomyocytes, skeletal myocytes or macrophage, or from an animal, bacterial or fungal source (xenogeneic), which can be genetically engineered, if desired, to deliver proteins of interest.

Numerous therapeutic agents, not necessarily exclusive of those listed above, have been identified as candidates for vascular treatment regimens, for example, as agents targeting restenosis. Such agents are useful for the presently disclosed endoprostheses and include one or more of the following: (a) Ca-channel blockers including benzothiazapines such as diltiazem and clentiazem, dihydropyridines such as nifedipine, amlodipine and nicardapine, and phenylalkylamines such as verapamil; (b) serotonin pathway modulators including: 5-HT antagonists such as ketanserin and naftidrofuryl, as well as 5-HT uptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine; (c) cyclic nucleotide pathway agents including phosphodiesterase inhibitors such as cilostazole and dipyridamole, adenylate/Guanylate cyclase stimulants such as forskolin, as well as adenosine analogs; (d) catecholamine modulators including α-antagonists such as prazosin and bunazosine, β-antagonists such as propranolol and α/β-antagonists such as labetalol and carvedilol; (e) endothelin receptor antagonists; (f) nitric oxide donors/releasing molecules including organic nitrates/nitrites such as nitroglycerin, isosorbide dinitrate and amyl nitrite, inorganic nitroso compounds such as sodium nitroprusside, sydnonimines such as molsidomine and linsidomine, nonoates such as diazenium diolates and NO adducts of alkanediamines, S-nitroso compounds including low molecular weight compounds (e.g., S-nitroso derivatives of captopril, glutathione and N-acetyl penicillamine) and high molecular weight compounds (e.g., S-nitroso derivatives of proteins, peptides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, synthetic polymers/oligomers and natural polymers/oligomers), as well as C-nitroso-compounds, O-nitroso-compounds, N-nitroso-compounds and L-arginine; (g) ACE inhibitors such as cilazapril, fosinopril and enalapril; (h) ATII-receptor antagonists such as saralasin and losartin; (i) platelet adhesion inhibitors such as albumin and polyethylene oxide; (j) platelet aggregation inhibitors including cilostazole, aspirin and thienopyridine (ticlopidine, clopidogrel) and GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors such as abciximab, epitifibatide and tirofiban; (k) coagulation pathway modulators including heparinoids such as heparin, low molecular weight heparin, dextran sulfate and β-cyclodextrin tetradecasulfate, thrombin inhibitors such as hirudin, hirulog, PPACK(D-phe-L-propyl-L-arg-chloromethylketone) and argatroban, FXa inhibitors such as antistatin and TAP (tick anticoagulant peptide), Vitamin K inhibitors such as warfarin, as well as activated protein C; (l) cyclooxygenase pathway inhibitors such as aspirin, ibuprofen, flurbiprofen, indomethacin and sulfinpyrazone; (m) natural and synthetic corticosteroids such as dexamethasone, prednisolone, methprednisolone and hydrocortisone; (n) lipoxygenase pathway inhibitors such as nordihydroguairetic acid and caffeic acid; (o) leukotriene receptor antagonists, (p) antagonists of E- and P-selectins; (q) inhibitors of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 interactions; (r) prostaglandins and analogs thereof including prostaglandins such as PGE1 and PGI2 and prostacyclin analogs such as ciprostene, epoprostenol, carbacyclin, iloprost and beraprost; (s) macrophage activation preventers including bisphosphonates; (t) HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors such as lovastatin, pravastatin, fluvastatin, simvastatin and cerivastatin; (u) fish oils and omega-3-fatty acids; (v) free-radical scavengers/antioxidants such as probucol, vitamins C and E, ebselen, trans-retinoic acid and SOD mimics; (w) agents affecting various growth factors including FGF pathway agents such as bFGF antibodies and chimeric fusion proteins, PDGF receptor antagonists such as trapidil, IGF pathway agents including somatostatin analogs such as angiopeptin and ocreotide, TGF-β pathway agents such as polyanionic agents (heparin, fucoidin), decorin, and TGF-β antibodies, EGF pathway agents such as EGF antibodies, receptor antagonists and chimeric fusion proteins, TNF-α pathway agents such as thalidomide and analogs thereof, Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) pathway modulators such as sulotroban, vapiprost, dazoxiben and ridogrel, as well as protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as tyrphostin, genistein and quinoxaline derivatives; (x) MMP pathway inhibitors such as marimastat, ilomastat and metastat; (y) cell motility inhibitors such as cytochalasin B; (z) antiproliferative/antineoplastic agents including antimetabolites such as purine analogs (e.g., 6-mercaptopurine or cladribine, which is a chlorinated purine nucleoside analog), pyrimidine analogs (e.g., cytarabine and 5-fluorouracil) and methotrexate, nitrogen mustards, alkyl sulfonates, ethylenimines, antibiotics (e.g., daunorubicin, doxorubicin, macrolide antibiotics such as erythromycin), nitrosoureas, cisplatin, agents affecting microtubule dynamics (e.g., vinblastine, vincristine, colchicine, Epo D, paclitaxel and epothilone), caspase activators, proteasome inhibitors, angiogenesis inhibitors (e.g., endostatin, angiostatin and squalamine), rapamycin, cerivastatin, flavopiridol and suramin; (aa) matrix deposition/organization pathway inhibitors such as halofuginone or other quinazolinone derivatives and tranilast; (bb) endothelialization facilitators such as VEGF and RGD peptide, and (cc) blood rheology modulators such as pentoxifylline.

Further additional therapeutic agents include immunosuppressents such as sirolimus and antibiotics such as macrolide antibiotics, evorolimus, zotarolimus, tacrolimus, picrolimus, and Tacrolimus for the presently disclosed endoprostheses are also disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,733,925.

Where a therapeutic agent is included, a wide range of therapeutic agent loadings can be used in conjunction with the presently disclosed block copolymer of PGA, with the therapeutically effective amount being readily determined by those of ordinary skill in the art and ultimately depending, for example, upon the condition to be treated, the age, sex and condition of the patient, the nature of the therapeutic agent, the erosion rate of the block copolymer of PGA and/or the stent body, and/or the nature of the stent itself, among other factors.

The stent can be of a desired shape and size (e.g., coronary stents, aortic stents, peripheral vascular stents, gastrointestinal stents, urology stents, tracheal/bronchial stents, and neurology stents). Depending on the application, the stent can have a diameter of between, e.g., about 1 mm to about 46 mm. In certain embodiments, a coronary stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 2 mm to about 6 mm. In some embodiments, a peripheral stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 4 mm to about 24 mm. In certain embodiments, a gastrointestinal and/or urology stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 6 mm to about 30 mm. In some embodiments, a neurology stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 1 mm to about 12 mm. An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) stent and a thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) stent can have a diameter from about 20 mm to about 46 mm. The stent can be balloon-expandable, self-expandable, or a combination of both (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,721). The ceramics can be used with other endoprostheses or medical devices, such as catheters, guide wires, and filters.

All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein including the appendix, are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

A number of embodiments have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. 

1. An endoprosthesis comprising a body defining a flow passage therethrough, the body capable of maintaining patency in a blood vessel, the body comprising iron or an alloy thereof, the body having a nano-structured surface comprising iron oxide in which the individual nano-structures have a height to thickness aspect ratio of at least 5:1.
 2. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the height to thickness aspect ratio is between 10:1 and 20:1.
 3. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the individual nano-structures have height of between about 50 nm to about 500 nm.
 4. The endoprosthesis of claim 3, wherein the individual nano-structures have a flake structure each having a width of at least twice the thickness, wherein the thickness of each individual nano-structure is between about 5 nm to 50 nm and the width of each individual nano-structure is between about 100 nm to 500 nm.
 5. The endoprosthesis of claim 3, wherein the individual nano-structures have a rice grain structure having a diameter of between about 5 nm to 50 nm.
 6. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein an average separation distance between adjacent individual nano-structures is between about 1 nm and 50 nm.
 7. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the surface has a S_(dr) of between 120 and
 200. 8. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the surface has a resistance to corrosion of less than 5 Kohms.
 9. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, further comprising a polymer coating over at least a portion of the nano-structured surface.
 10. The endoprosthesis of claim 9, wherein the polymer coating comprises a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid and a polymer selected from the group consisting of poly(ethylene oxide), polycaprolactam, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), polysaccharides, or combinations thereof.
 11. The endoprosthesis of claim 10, wherein the polymer comprises a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid and a non-ionic polysaccharide.
 12. The endoprosthesis of claim 11, wherein the non-ionic polysaccharide is pullulan.
 13. The endoprosthesis of claim 9, wherein the polymer coating is a drug eluting coating comprising a therapeutic agent.
 14. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the endoprosthesis is bioerodible.
 15. The endoprosthesis of claim 1, wherein the endoprosthesis is a stent.
 16. An endoprosthesis comprising a body defining a flow passage therethrough, the body capable of maintaining patency in a blood vessel, the body comprising iron or an alloy thereof, the body having a surface comprising iron oxide, the endoprosthesis comprising a coating over the surface, the coating comprising a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid.
 17. The endoprosthesis of claim 16, wherein the co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid is a co-block polymer of polyglutamic acid and of a polysaccharide.
 18. The endoprosthesis of claim 17, wherein the polysacharide is a non-ionic polysaccharide.
 19. The endoprosthesis of claim 17, wherein the polysaccharide is pullulan.
 20. The endoprosthesis of claim 16, wherein the surface has a S_(dr) between 120 and
 200. 21. The endoprosthesis of claim 16, wherein the endoprosthesis is bioerodible.
 22. The endoprosthesis of claim 16, wherein the endoprosthesis is a stent.
 23. A method of producing an endoprosthesis, comprising exposing a portion of an endoprosthesis, or a precursor thereof, to an electrolytic solution, the endoprosthesis, or the precursor thereof, comprising iron or an alloy thereof; applying a plurality of current pulses to the endoprosthesis, or the precursor thereof, to create a nano-structured surface on the endoprosthesis having a plurality of individual nano-structures having a height to thickness aspect ratio of at least 5:1.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the applied current pulses comprise cathodic pulses, anodic pulses, or a combination thereof.
 25. The method of claim 23, wherein the applied current pulses comprise galvanic square waves, potential square waves, or a combination thereof.
 26. The method of claim 23, further comprising applying a coating comprising a polymer to the nano-structured surface
 27. The method of claim 23, wherein the endoprosthesis is a bioerodible stent. 